The Constitutional Convention Was a Four-Act Drama

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In the sweltering summer of 1787, fifty-five men gathered behind closed doors in Philadelphia’s Independence Hall to undertake one of history’s most ambitious political experiments. What began as a modest attempt to revise the failing Articles of Confederation transformed into the complete reimagining of American government—a process that constitutional scholar Gordon Lloyd aptly describes as a “four-act drama.”

The Crisis That Sparked a Revolution

James Madison and George Washington recognized that the principles of the 1776 Revolution were in mortal danger. The Continental Congress under the Articles of Confederation was powerless, while state legislatures had become “overbearing, unjust, and reckless.” Something had to be done, but how could such a radical transformation be accomplished legally?

Madison’s political genius lay in his strategy. He persuaded Virginia’s legislature to implement the Annapolis Convention’s recommendation and invite all states to reconsider the Articles. Virginia became the first state to elect delegates, choosing revolutionary hero George Washington to lead a delegation that included Madison himself, Governor Edmund Randolph, and George Mason, author of Virginia’s Bill of Rights.

The Delegates: America’s “Demi-Gods”

Thomas Jefferson would later call these men “demi-gods,” and their credentials were impressive. The fifty-five delegates who eventually participated represented a remarkable collection of political talent: signers of the Declaration of Independence, state governors, judges, and military heroes. From Pennsylvania came the elderly Benjamin Franklin, known as “the American Socrates,” alongside the eloquent Gouverneur Morris, who would speak more than anyone at the convention. South Carolina sent influential pro-slavery delegates John Rutledge and Charles Pinckney, while Massachusetts contributed Elbridge Gerry and the young Rufus King.

Notably absent was Rhode Island, which declined to participate entirely. New York’s delegation was intentionally weakened by Governor George Clinton, who sent two opponents to outvote the brilliant but isolated Alexander Hamilton.

Act One: The Virginia Plan Revolution

When the convention finally achieved a quorum on May 25, the delegates elected Washington as president and agreed to maintain strict secrecy. Despite Philadelphia’s brutal summer heat, windows remained shuttered and heavy drapes drawn to ensure private deliberations.

Governor Randolph’s introduction of Madison’s Virginia Plan at the end of May marked the beginning of Act One. This wasn’t the modest revision many expected—it was revolutionary. The plan proposed a wholly national government with proportional representation in both houses of Congress, effectively eliminating the states’ role in the federal structure. Congressional powers would be virtually unlimited, addressing any area where states proved “incompetent.”

The Virginia Plan introduced a new understanding of both federalism and republicanism, abandoning traditional features like short terms and term limits. Over two weeks of debate, this radical proposal was largely adopted, defeating both the more conservative New Jersey Plan and Hamilton’s even more extreme proposal for a president-for-life.

Act Two: Crisis and Compromise

Act Two revealed the convention in crisis. Far from accepting the Virginia Plan’s nationalism, delegates from smaller states fought back fiercely. Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware, New York, and Maryland’s Luther Martin argued that the convention had exceeded its congressional mandate by scrapping rather than revising the Articles. They insisted that republican government could only function in small territories where citizens maintained close oversight of representatives—a principle drawn from their reading of Locke and Montesquieu.

The breakthrough came when Connecticut’s Oliver Ellsworth suggested the convention move beyond the “wholly national” versus “wholly federal” paradigm. Why not create something that was both? This insight led to the formation of the Gerry Committee and ultimately to the Connecticut Compromise, accepted in mid-July over Madison’s strong objections. The House would represent the people proportionally, while the Senate would represent states equally.

Act Three: Powers and the Slavery Question

With the structural issues resolved, Act Three focused on defining congressional powers. The Committee of Detail was tasked with enumerating specific powers rather than Madison’s original broad grant of authority over areas where states were “incompetent.”

The slavery question emerged as a critical issue during these August debates. The Committee of Detail’s initial report would have permanently prohibited Congress from regulating the slave trade and forbidden using taxes to discourage it. However, the final Constitution represented a compromise: Congress was prohibited from banning the slave trade only until 1808 and was permitted to discourage it through taxation. This seemingly minor change proved historically significant—President Jefferson signed legislation banning the slave trade effective January 1, 1808, exactly when the Constitution allowed.

Act Four: Creating the Presidency

The convention’s final act addressed the unresolved question of the presidency. For four months, delegates had debated how to elect a chief executive, with this decision affecting every other aspect of presidential power. The Brearley Committee’s solution was ingenious: the Electoral College, modeled after the Connecticut Compromise by combining popular and state-based selection.

This compromise resolved multiple issues simultaneously. It determined the president’s term length, eligibility for reelection, and the scope of executive powers. The presidency that emerged was far stronger than most state governors but remained accountable through impeachment.

The Dramatic Conclusion

During the final week, the Committee of Style, led by Gouverneur Morris, crafted the Constitution’s final language, including its memorable Preamble. However, not everyone was satisfied. George Mason expressed his wish that “the plan had been prefaced by a Bill of Rights,” supported by Elbridge Gerry and Edmund Randolph. All three ultimately refused to sign.

The convention concluded with Benjamin Franklin’s famous “rising sun” speech, where he observed the sun painted on Washington’s chair and expressed hope that it was rising, not setting, on American liberty. Of the fifty-five delegates who participated, thirty-nine signed the Constitution on September 17, 1787.

A Unique Achievement

What made this founding unique in world history was its peaceful, deliberative nature. As Alexis de Tocqueville marveled, never before had a nation’s leaders declared their government bankrupt, engaged in calm public debate, and emerged with a new system without shedding “a drop of blood.” Hamilton captured this in Federalist 1, noting that government was finally being established through “reflection and choice rather than force and fraud.”

The Constitution these relatively young, well-educated, and politically experienced men created in just eighty-eight days has endured for over two centuries, proving that their summer’s work in Philadelphia was indeed transformative.Retry